| Panel: Culture and Diversity in Community Space and Cyberspace |
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Steve Cisler: Indigenous Groups and the Internet
Network Outreach
Apple Computer
Let me start by reading two views about networks and the Internet. The first is by Jerry Mander of the Public Media Center and the Foundation for Deep Ecology in San Francisco:
"Computers may help individuals feel powerful or competent, and surely they are useful in many ways. But they do nothing to alter the rapid global centralization of power that is now underway; quite the opposite. In fact, it is my opinion that computer technology may be the single most important instrument ever invented for the acceleration of centralized power. ...The new telecommunications technologies assist the corporate, centralized, industrialized enterprise (the ‘right’?) far more efficiently that the decentralized, local, community-based interests (the ‘left’?), which suffer a net loss."
- Mander , "Technologies of Globalization" in The Case Against the Global Economy
I would add that Mander believes very strongly that the introduction of television and computers in native cultures is disastrous. It is, he asserts, a net loss.
And...
"The most important civil liberties issue facing us today is getting citizens of all races, classes, and creeds connected to the Internet. Our fight for free speech and privacy rights will remain a hollow victory if cyberspace is just a bunch of white folks."
- Ann Beeson, American Civil Liberties Union Fellow
Neither of the two people I quoted are of any of these cultures or tribes, but they have a view that holds for all of them. Nor am I of an indigenous culture, but I recognize that there is a spectrum of views, plans, and projects when it comes to introducing and using the Internet among the various peoples around the world.
My own interest in this topic comes from my work at Apple in the grant program that provided computers and software for a variety of library projects in the U.S. and Canada, and this included several projects with American Indian tribes including a Zuni-English multimedia dictionary, a Reservation Area Network, a CD-ROM of Pomo artifacts and oral histories, the ongoing Hawaiian language preservation project in the schools in Hawaii, and several others that I’ll mention in the talk.
This talk will cover a range of attitudes and reactions:
The Uses include:
Beth Fraser: DO-IT People with Disabilities, Computer Technology and Cyberspace
DO-IT/University Libraries
University of Washington
bamf@u.washington.edu
Introduction
I’m here today to share with you a brief overview of information and issues related to people with disabilities and cyberspace. During my talk today I will focus on these topics:
The Internet + Adaptive Technology = A World of Opportunity
Disability - Definitions and Statistics
U.S. Federal Legislation
Adaptive Technology
Some Current Issues
Where do we go from here?
During my talk I want to focus on two important themes:
1) When designing services or programs, think about the needs of people with disabilities and ask for input from people with disabilities. In some cases, there is a legal imperative to do this: there is always a moral imperative to work to provide access for all.
2) Being sensitive to the needs of people with disabilities makes access easier for EVERYONE. This includes both electronic as well as other environments.
At a recent program, I heard science fiction author Greg Bear speak about the role of science fiction which is occasionally looked down upon by literary types as simple genre fiction. Bear argued that science fiction plays an important role in our society by preparing us on an intellectual and emotional level for some of the incredible changes our society is experiencing as we move into the Information Age. In science fiction today, we see any number of people whose disability has been resolved with the capabilities of technology and computers, providing them with full functionality--Star Trek’s Geordie, even Star Wars’ Darth Vader. And I think Greg Bear is right, because I don’t think any of us was too skeptical of Christopher Reeves when he said at the Democratic National Convention last summer that he expects to be able to walk with new technology during his lifetime. We believe in the capabilities of technology. And that is very exciting, because with that belief, we can do tremendous things.
Computers and adaptive technology have already made a world of difference, enabling people with disabilities to pursue education, careers and hobbies. If you have a functional limitation, for example if you are blind, or if you can’t speak, and if you find something that allows you to independently see or speak. Well, hey. It’s cool. You are ready to go. But let’s back up now and give you a few definitions and statistics.
Disability: Definitions and Statistics
There are several definitions of disability. To receive Social Security Disability Insurance, or SSDI, persons are considered disabled if they are unable to engage in substantial gainful activity.
The ADA, or Americans with Disabilities Act, has a broader definition. An individual is considered to have a disability if the person: (a) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities; (b) has a record of such an impairment; or (c) is regarded as having such an impairment.
Many Americans have a disability. 19.4% or about 1 in 5 Americans has a disability. 9.6% or 1 in 10 has a severe disability.(1)
In 1994, 9.2% of all full-time, first-time entering freshman reported a disability, up from 2.6% in 1978.(2) With the demographic flow of the baby boomlet, the increased digitization of higher education, and the continued affect of the ADA and other legislation, we can expect not necessarily a larger increase in the percentage of students with disabilities, but definitely an increase in the pure numbers of students with disabilities on campuses.
With increasing age comes a greater likelihood of having a disability. In a 91-92 study, among those 18 - 44, 5% had a severe disability. Among those aged 65 - 74, that figure jumped to 25% and for those aged 75-84, it jumped to 42%.(3) The demographic trend which will bring the baby boomers into maturing adulthood will likely increase the percentage of people with disabilities in the population. The aging population will also have increased levels of education and increased expectations for continuing to actively participate in educational and life activities - including the rich information and recreational resources of Cyberspace.
The presence of a disability is associated with lower levels of income, reduced chance for employment, and an increased liklihood of being in poverty. (4)
These statistics show that it will be increasingly important for our electronic resources and Cyberspace to be accessible to and usable by people with disabilities, as the number of people with disabilities increases.
U.S. Federal Legislation
In terms of federal legislation, there are three primary pieces of law which I will just list briefly.
The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination in employment against persons with disabilities. It applies to, Federal employers, recipients of Federal contracts, and recipients of Federal financial aid
The Technology-Related Assistance Act of 1988/amended in 1993 (called the Tech Acts) established state resources for adaptive technology awareness. Washington State’s Tech Act agency is based as the University of Washington.
WATA - Washington Assistive
Technology Alliance
(206)685-4181 V/TTY
uwat@u.washington.edu
The well-know 1990 ADA, Americans with Disabilities Act, requires that all private and public schools, libraries, business and facilities be accessible to people with disabilities. It makes it unlawful to discriminate in employment and educational practices.
When the ADA was originally passed, some disabilities rights advocates did not think it would do much because on a legal level the language doesn’t add to the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973. However, the ADA has been extremely important because it raised the level of awareness of the issues. In addition, the ADA included requiring equal access to communications which the courts have interpreted broadly apparently to include information technology. In terms of Cyberspace, there are just starting to be some cases that are testing how far the ADA’s protection of communications will apply to Cyberspace.
Adaptive Technology
Now I would like to give you an overview of Adaptive Technology.
Adaptive technology can assist people with:
Low Vision, Blindness, Hearing Impairments, Specific Learning Disabilities, Mobility Impairments, Health Impairments.
Adaptive Technologies for computers can include either hardware and software. Often, hardware and software technologies work together to provide the accommodation. These technologies can be very easy to implement or they can be long-term projects with long-range planning and funding needed to implement them. AT can be inexpensive to very expensive. People with low vision may only special stickers to put on their keyboard to make the letters larger. On the other hand, you may want a pricey Braille printer if you need to provide documents for someone who is blind. Adaptive technologies can be easy to use, or they can be very difficult to learn, requiring a great deal of commitment on the part of the student. These technologies can be generic or unique to individual. Organizationally, you will probably want to provide several generic options at your service or work site. You should also have procedures in place to deal with needs that these "generic" solutions cannot address.(5)
But, providing access to people with disabilities doesn’t just depend on providing adaptive technology. Accessibility issues need to be addressed at every stage.
There are furniture and hardware issues.
There are many software issues. Accessibility includes providing specialized software such as screen enlargers and screen reading programs, as well as ensuring that standard, commercial programs are accessible. Developers of commercial software programs and products (such as CD-ROM encyclopedias) are increasingly aware of the needs of people with disabilities, however, there must be much more awareness of the importance of accessible design. The TRACE Research and Development Center is a great resource for this issue. http://www.trace.wisc.edu/
The way that you format your Internet and World Wide Web resources can have a huge impact on whether people with disabilities using adaptive technologies can get access to your resources. I encourage you to attend the workshop on accessible Web Design taking place at the workshops tomorrow. A separate article in this publication discusses this issue in more depth.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I want to come back to the two themes I mentioned initially:
This is not as difficult as you might think. There are numerous Web and Internet resources to provide information. The EASI listserv is one place that you can ask questions on issues related to adaptive technologies and computers. (Equal Access to Software & Information:-web: http://www.rit.edu/~easi )
You would be surprised at the number of people who can be helped when you think carefully about providing access to a broad range of people. It benefits everyone when you do!
End Notes
1 Americans With Disabilities: 1991-1992. Current Population Reports, Series P70-33.. Information also available at http://www.census.gov/
2. "Facts You Can Use. College Freshman with Disabilities." Information from HEATH. Vol. 14, No. 2,3. June/July 1995. Contact the Heath Resource Center, a Program of the American Council on Education at (800)544-3284 or on the Web at http://ace-info-server.nche.edu/Programs/HEATH/home.html
3. Americans With Disabilities. Bureau of the Census Statistical Brief. SB/94-1, January 1994. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. Available at http://www.census.gov/
4. McNeil, John. "Disability". Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. Available at http://www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/disabil.html Last Revised 10/3/96.
5. There are many organizations who will provide information on adaptive technologies at no cost or for a relatively small fee. Several organizations you may want to start with include Closing the Gap which publishes a newspaper on microcomputer technology for people with special needs. http://www.closingthegap.com
Washington State’s Tech Act provides information on Adaptive Technologies.
WATA - Washington Assistive
Technology Alliance
(206)685-4181 V/TTY
uwat@u.washington.edu
Students should check with their School’s Office of Disabled Student Services and Computer Center for information on accommodations for the educational needs.
Public and private organizations that have the funding may want to hire a consultant to plan for disabilities access.
For further resources, check out DO-IT’s (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking and Technology) homepage: http://weber.u.washington.edu/~doit
Beth Fraser: World Wide Access: Accessible Web Design
Accessible Web page design principles, sometimes called universal access design principles, ensure that your World Wide Web pages are accessible to all Internet users regardless of the type of hardware, browser software, and Internet connection they use.
The World Wide Web has rapidly become the most popular method of using the Internet, combining hypermedia and multimedia to provide a huge network of educational, governmental and commercial resources. Yet because of the multimedia nature of the medium, many Internet surfers are not able to access these materials. Some visitors
· cannot see graphics because of visual impairments
· cannot hear audio because of hearing impairments
· use slow connections and modems which cannot download large files
· have difficulty when screens are unorganized, inconsistent and cluttered and when descriptions and instructions are unclear. These difficulties may occur because they have learning disabilities, speak English as a second language, or are younger than the average user
· use adaptive technology with their computer to access the Web. Most adaptive technologies work best with text-based resources.
Universal access design principles ensure that all Internet users can get to the information at your Web site regardless of their disability or the limitations of their equipment. Keep these guidelines in mind while developing your Web pages to ensure that they are accessible to all!
Accessible Design Principles
I. General page design.
The Web has mushroomed in popularity because it is such a powerful and versatile medium. Much of its power comes from the fact that it presents information in a variety of formats while also organizing that information through hypertext links. As a result,designing a well organized page is essential to helping all visitors navigate through your resources.
a. Maintain a simple, consistent page layout throughout your site.
A consistent design and look makes it easier to navigate through the hypertext and find the information you want to provide. For example, features presented on every page, such as a standard navigation menu for the site, should always appear in the same place. A clear, organized presentation will especially assist people with learning disabilities who have difficulty working through disorganized, random sites. A carefully planned organizational scheme will help everyone use your site.
b. Keep backgrounds simple. Make sure there is enough contrast.
Even people with 20/20 vision can have difficulty reading information at sites with busy backgrounds, sometimes called wallpapers. Many backgrounds obscure text and make reading more difficult. This is especially true for people with low vision or colorblindness as well as for people using black and white monitors. Make sure that there is a enough contrast between your text and the background of the page. Test your site with both black and white and color monitors.
c. Use standard HTML
Use standard tags that all Web browsers can read. Some tags, such as the infamous <BLINK>, are not supported by all Web browsers. HTML was designed to be a universal format outside the bounds of proprietary software and computer languages. Using standard HTML will ensure that your content can be accessed by all browsers that visit your site.
d. Design large buttons.
Small buttons providing links can be difficult for visitors with mobility impairments using specialized pointer adaptive technologies to use. Larger buttons can make it easier for these visitors to select the links on your page.
e. Include a note about accessibility
Notify your users that you are concerned about accessibility by including a Web access symbol on your page (see Resources list), or a statement like the following. Encourage your users to notify you with their accessibility concerns.
The DO-IT pages form a living document and are regularly updated. We strive to make them universally accessible. You will notice that we minimize the use of graphics and photos, and provide descriptions of them when they are included. Video clips are open captioned, providing access to users who can't hear the audio. Suggestions for increasing the accessibility of these pages are welcome.
II. Provide text alternatives to non-text features such as graphics and image maps.
People who are blind will not be able to view the graphical features of your Web site. Many people with visual impairments use voice output programs with text-based browsers (such as Lynx) or graphical browsers with loading of images turned off. It is imperative that you include text alternatives to make these graphical features accessible. Here are guidelines for providing alternative text for various types of features.
a. Include short ALT Tags for logos and graphics that that are not critical to the information content of the page.
ALT Tags should be short and simple (less than 5 words) as browsers sometimes have difficulty with long, run-on ALT Tags.
The alternative text helps the visitor understand what is on the page if they are using a text browser, or if they have image loading turned off in their graphical browser.
The bolded section below shows what an ALT tag looks like HTML:
<IMG SRC="./doitlogo.large.gif" ALIGN=MIDDLE ALT="[DO-IT LOGO]">
When a sighted visitor views the page, they will see the DO-IT logo. When a user who is blind visits, his voice output program will read "DO-IT logo" to him. This gives him a clearer idea of what is on the page. In addition, any visitor coming to the site using a text-based browser will understand that there is a logo there instead of the more ambiguous "image" read from the HTML coding referring to images without ALT tags.
b. Include ALT tags for image maps (also called ISMAPS) to ensure that the embedded links are accessible.
An image map is a picture in which parts of the picture can be clicked on to find a link to another page. For example, on a map of the United States, a visitor might click on Washington State to find information about our state. But if the programmer has not included an ALT tag with alternative text, visitors using text-based browsers can be totally blocked from the site, or sent on a wild goose chase clicking unlabelled links that lead them in circles.
The following HTML coding does not include an ALT tag for the image map.
<HTML>
<TITLE>Our Library Page</TITLE>
<BODY>
<A HREF="/cgi-bin/htimage/home.map">
<IMG SRC="images/home.jpg" ismap </A>
</BODY>
</HTML>
When viewed through a graphical browser, such as Netscape, a beautiful picture of a floor map of a library appears in which the visitor can choose selected areas of the library. But when a visitor using a text-based browser visits the site, this is what they see:
Our Library Page
[ISMAP]
At this point the visitor is stuck as most browsers will not interpret the hypertext links embedded in the image map. Your visitor’s only option is to back out of the site. A visitor who is blind, or that has older technology with a text-based browser can’t get to your information.
The accessibility of image maps is dependent on the web server software used at your site. Some recent server programs can pull the link information from the image map and present it in a menu format for graphical browsers. However, many servers are not yet this sophisticated, so always include ALT tags.
c. Include descriptive captions for pictures, and transcriptions of manuscript images.
What information do your pictures and images provide to the viewer? Always provide an ALT tag for an image. This is sufficient for logos and graphics that that are not critical to the information content of the page. But if the graphics provide information beyond this, adding captions and transcriptions is important for those who cannot see your page either because they are blind, or because they are using a text-based browser. If you’re not sure how critical a particular image is to the content of a page, temporarily remove it and consider its impact.
If you present information in an image format, such as a scanned-in image of a page of a manuscript, be sure to also provide a transcription of the manuscript in a straight text format. This aids a wide variety of users including those with vision impairments, users who speak English as a second language, and users with learning disabilities who may have difficulty reading the original document.
d. Caption video and transcribe other audio.
Multi-media and audio formats can be barriers to people with hearing and visual impairments as well as for people with less sophisticated technology. Provide captioning and transcriptions for materials in these mediums so that these visitors to your page have an alternative method of accessing this information.
e. Make links descriptive so that they are understood out of context.
Patrons who use screen reading software can adjust their software to read only the links on a page. For this reason, links should provide enough information when read out-of-context. Never use "click here" as a link, or next to an graphic used as a link.
f. Other options
Some organizations caption images by adding a hyperlink immediately before or after the image to another page with image descriptions. They suggest that the hyperlink text be a simple "D". At the end of the description is another hyperlink -- "Return". Selecting Return will take you back to the image.
While this is one option, we suggest including the caption as part of the page in which the image resides. (WHY?) In the same vein, some have advocated the use of alternative text versions of their pages. This adds a great deal of maintenance as two versions must be updated, and many people with disabilities would prefer to have the original version edited so that it is accessible to them.
III. Special Features
a. Use tables and frames sparingly, or consider alternatives.
Most screen reader programs read from left to right, jumbling the meaning of information in tables. The adaptive technology will be refined to deal with graphical issues such as this, but at this point, look for other ways to present the information so that visitors with visual impairments can reach your data. In the same vein, frames often present logistical nightmares to text-based screen reading software.
b. Forms and databases
Always test forms and databases with a text-based browser. Include an e-mail address and other contact information for those who cannot use your forms or database.
d. Applets and plug-ins
As the software is developed, applets (such as programs created with JAVA) and plug-ins (such as Adobe Acrobat) may provide accessibility features. However, currently, many of these programs are not accessible to people utilizing text-based browsers. To ensure that people with vision and hearing impairments can access your information, provide the content from these programs in other, text-based formats.
IV. Test your Web pages with a variety of browsers.
Test your Web page with as many Web browsers as you can, and always test your Web page with at least one text-based browser. This way, you will see your Web resources from the many perspectives of your users. You may want to try out an accessibility validation site which performs a diagnostic on your pages and points out parts that could that are inaccessible.
Additional Resources
As with all technology, things change regularly in the field of accessibility as software and hardware are continually improved. Features that were not accessible may become so through the improvements of adaptive, browser and server software. However, we can always expect to be working with several generations of software and hardware at anyone time. Adhering to these principles will ensure that your Web site doesn’t leave anyone behind.
Here are some sites with more information about accessible Web design.
DO-IT (Disabilities,
Opportunities, Internetworking and Technology) at the University
of Washington includes a listing of Internet Resources for
Accessible Web design, as well as other informational resources.
http://weber.u.washington.edu/~doit
The National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM) promotes the use of a Web Access symbol and provides model examples of accessible pages.
http://www.boston.com/wgbh/pages/ncam/currentprojects/webaccess.html
Trace Research and Development
Center at the University of Wisconsin - Madison focuses on
research and design "to advance the ability of people with
disabilities to achieve their life objectives through the use of
communication, computer and information technologies." They
include many resources on accessible Web design on their page.
http://www.trace.wisc.edu/
The Accessible Computer Technology
Centre provides a thorough guide to accessible Web design.
http://www.igs.net/~starling/acc/index.htm
Bobby is an easy to use program
that will help you make Web pages accessible to those with
disabilities. It will also find HTML compatibility problems that
prevent pages from displaying correctly on different web
browsers. Bobby was created at CAST (Center for Applied Special
Technology).
http://www.cast.org/bobby/
DO-IT
This information accompanies an 11 minute video, World Wide Access, which may be ordered through DO-IT.
DO-IT
4545 15th Avenue NE, Room 206, Seattle, WA 98195
doit@u.washington.edu
Director: Sheryl Burgstahler, Ph.D.
http://weber.u.washington.edu/~doit
Copyright ã 1997, University of Washington
Permission is granted to copy these materials for educational, non-commercial purposes provided the source is acknowledged. 2/20/97
Madeline Gonzalez: The Association For Community Networking
[Draft, developed by members of the Interim AFCN Board]
The Association for Community Networking (AFCN) will be a nonprofit corporation dedicated to educating its members about the potential community benefits of information & communication technology, and providing members the services & resources they will need to create their own applications. We are unique because the people who use our services also share their knowledge with other members, helping other communities as they build their own.
Background
We are in the midst of profound changes in our society, moving from manufacturing to an information-based economy. The change have resulted in social fragmentation, loss of trust in government, reduced faith in each other and diminished hope among people without the means to keep up.
At the same time many people feel disconnected in their work and personal worlds. Advances in electronic information and communication offer the possibility of reconnecting.
The potential of telecommunications is evident in the growth of the Internet, innovations in wireless technology, pervasive, inexpensive pagers and cellular phones.
Used thoughtfully, these tools of the emerging electronic culture can help diminish the social, economic and physical isolation of our time.
However, this new medium also can be clumsy and awkward; using computers for communication is still too complicated for widespread acceptance. And, as the medium grows, the issues surrounding its use also seem to grow so much that the complexity of it all can seem overwhelming.
Communities need a way to assess and draw on local resources and strengths, to create local strategies to solve local problems. AFCN’s focus is to help communities find common-sense, practical ways to use the power of both electronic and personal contact.
Community Networks
Over the past decade a wide variety of experiments and projects have been launched to bring the benefits of electronic networks to citizens, students, government agencies, small businesses, libraries, schools, and non-profit groups. These community or civic networks have taken many forms: Free-Nets, InfoZones, bulletin board systems, tele-villages and smart cities. The result has been the beginning of a new movement in the United States to use electronic-based networks to enhance communication and information sharing. Yet this movement has lacked a consistent voice and dependable support.
The national organization will provide leadership and guidance so people can spend their time and money building up their communities, rather than constructing these systems from the ground up.
The need is great for a national organization to address the challenges that the thousands of cities and towns and communities not yet online face and to assist the networks that are struggling to continue and to understand why many have not succeeded. The organization will help provide a framework to understand and remedy some of the problems facing community networks at the end of this century. Like the Internet, AFCN is a network, and it is also a network of communities.
AFCN will have a few full-time employees with long experience in starting and running community networks and a working board of dedicated and knowledgeable supporters. The membership will form a network that will generate its own projects and collaborations. These will further the goals of the organization and build social capital across people, economic groups, and organizations. Membership will be open to individuals, institutions, small businesses, large corporations, government agencies, foundations and non-profit organizations.
What Will AFCN Do?
Initially, we will:
Organizational Development
The organization is being incorporated in Colorado, and will become a nonprofit 501©3. Our fund-raising began in 1996 and we will be soliciting support in 1997. Financial support will come from membership dues, grants, services and products, sponsorship of events, conference fees and in-kind donations.
Interim AFCN Board
The broad experience of our primary participants reflects the high level of expertise available through community networking projects locally. While many have been involved in this AFCN effort, the following have been the primary participants:
For more information, or to become involved, please contact:
Madeline Gonzalez: madeline@rmii.com