Comments on Landing

This is just my personal observations on landing. I am *not* a CFI and have not played one on TV, DVD or the CB radio. 'CFI' is US parlance for flight instructor.

You will need:

• an airplane
• a runway

Details for Non-Pilots

The pattern (circuit) is a flight path used to approach a runway. The pilot enters the pattern, usually at a prescribed altitude, and then starts a final descent at or before "final approach." The end of the descent is the touchdown point. In order to smooth the transition from the descent to the ground roll, the pilot flares the airplane.

In order for an airplane to land, it must

1. fly to the touchdown point
2. stall after reaching the touchdown point

Everything else is airspeed. This is important if you're learning to fly, learning to "fix" your landing technique, and especially if you want to land an airplane if the pilot becomes totally incapacitated. As Hillel said, "The rest is details. Go and study."

It's said that "pitch controls airspeed and throttle controls climb/descent." That's not exactly true. What is true is:

1. When airspeed is critical, control speed with pitch; and
2. When altitude is critical, control altitude with pitch.

So you use pitch to control whatever is critical.

This is still a bit confusing, so here's the grok:

1. In the pattern (circuit), airspeed is critical. If you go too slow, you stall the plane. You have the luxury to control altitude with power, but you must control airspeed.
2. En-route, you usually are at a selected cruise power setting. You get precise altitude control with pitch. You have the luxury of using power to control speed.
3. On "flare" and touchdown, airspeed is no longer critical because you are expecting to stall either just before or just after landing. But now altitude becomes critical because you don't want to land too hard. So on flare, you control altitude with pitch. Airspeed will become too slow for flight, but that's desired after landing.

Control Approach Speed

The best final approach speed is usually little above stall speed, or about 1.3 x stall speed (1.3 Vso). This is established by a predetermined pitch attitude (meaning a predetermined up/down position of the nose with the horizon). If you want to go faster, the nose is pitched down, and if you want to slow, pitch the nose up.

The airspeed indicator tells you that the pitch angle is correct. So you fly by "pitch" and cross-check speed with the airspeed indicator.

At final approach speed it is possible to control descent with the throttle.

The approach speed is critical. It is important not to slow below stall speed. This is the reason civilian pilots are taught how to stall the airplane. It is important to recognize the stall and how to get out of a stall.

If the approach speed is too fast, the plane will float in ground effect down the runway as you are trying to bleed airspeed. If you land too fast, the airplane will simply bounce into the air.

An Easy Way to Control Approach Speed

(Most pilots know this but...) At low power settings, airspeed is established by pitch. So once you've established the ideal pitch for an airspeed, the airspeed indicator only becomes a cross-check. It's easier to fly that way. Incidentally, this landing pitch attitude will approximate the takeoff pitch attitude on most trainers.

Aim for the Runway

That final approach path should be a straight line (once you turn to final) to the touchdown point on the runway. You can tell if you're on the path by looking at a glide slope indicator (VASI), but that doesn't tell if you're descending at the right speed. That you can determine by the "no-movement point."

The final approach path is a fixed angle. Most airports have 3 degree glidepaths, although 4.5 degree glidepaths are not uncommon.

The "No-Movement Point"

If you look through the windshield during descent, there will be one line along the ground which doesn't move. Or maybe that's the "no-movement line." That's the "no-movement point." Anything above that line will move further up the windshield, and of course anything below that line will move down and below the plane.

If you continue along your present line of flight, the "no-movement point" is where you'll touch down.

So if the "no-movement point" is halfway down the runway, you'll land long. If the "no-movement point" is in the weeds, you'll land there unless you add power.

If your approach speed is correct and the "no-movement point" is at the approach end (beginning) of the runway, you are properly set up for landing. You'll make the landing.

Moving the "No-Movement Point"

This is done by applying or reducing power. If the "no-movement point" is too far (landing long), it is simply a matter of losing altitude. This can be done by:

1. reducing power (mentioned above);
2. slips; or
3. S-turns.

If you are landing long, it is also possible to pitch down to make the adjustment, while leaving trim at the approach speed. This increases airspeed. Because of this simultaneous increase of descent rate airspeed, pitching down is more difficult than reducing power, at least for a beginning pilot.

If you are landing short, the only real option is to increase power and be more precise in controlling airspeed.

Look Toward the End

As you reach the runway threshold, try to keep the plane level until it "mushes in." This results in a curve in the flight path, known as the flare.

At this point you want to look toward the end of the runway. There is a "disappearing point," in vision which some people like to focus on, but the end of the runway will do.

Each plane is different, but you generally need to:

Avoid pitching too far up. Low wing planes in particular will climb out of ground effect and then stall.

Plant the mains down before the nosewheel (tricycle gear, of course). Some planes, like certain Cessna models can be damaged by too much force on the nosewheel.

If you find yourself porpoising, then you simply landed too "hot," meaning too fast. Prepare to go around by applying some power. Usually this will arrest the porpoising, and you can mush in, but if not, you're ready to add more power and go around. Excessive porpoising can cause a prop strike on some models, such as Mooney.

You made it. It's not a good idea to "mess with" any of the controls (flaps) until off the runway. This rule is ignored by fixed gear pilots doing touch and gos, and by pilots of some planes.

In the case of Mooney, the wing is very close to the ground and it is believed that bleeding flaps permits better braking. This is partially a myth because during the time that flaps are bled, the airplane will slow enough to achieve effective braking anyway. If you have electric gear, leave those hands off the flaps!

Remember the joke, "A 'good' landing is one where you can walk away; a 'great' landing is where most of the major parts remain on the plane and it can be flown again." Unless you're judging "good pilots" by spot landing contests, it really doesn't matter if you flare a few feet too high! If you know how to recover from a bounce, it shouldn't matter if you flare too low either!

In other words, it isn't important!

By the way, an 'excellent' landing is defined as one in which the passengers will fly with you again.

By the numbers

Some instructors will draw out a diagram of the circuit and indicate a certain speed at each of various points. Power back on downwind by the numbers; partial flaps at downwind to base, full flaps on final, etc. The flight school will often have a wall chart and the instructor "flies" a model airplane around the wall chart. It's a little silly but it does give a student an idea of what to do at different times. But make sure you also get a real feel for how the airplane flies. That way, you aren't dependent on the numbers.

It does help to know what some of these numbers are. For example, a certain power setting will result in a predictable descent rate. These "numbers" make good cross-checks.

Reducing power and descent rate gradually

The idea is that if power and speed are gradually reduced, the rate of descent will slow, while maintaining the same glide path (as a straight line). This creates a smooth transition to landing, but takes a good deal of concentration.

Stabilized Approach

This is an ideal approach preferred by the FAA for commercial pilots and by airlines. If the pilot stays "ahead of the plane," changes in power settings and pitch will be gradual. Slight increases in power can extend a short landing and pitching down to increase rate of descent can shorten the approach. Ideally, no major changes in power or configuration are needed to effect a good landing.

There is a myth that, once power is set for a landing, there should be no need to increase power. Don't believe it. What is true is that one should plan to gradually decrease power throughout the landing. A landing in which power increases are planned for short final is not stabilized. There are, however, cases in which best judgement requires power increases.

Slip once during landing

This was suggested to me by a very experienced checkride examiner. Slipping allows precise control of the landing spot. It also gives the pilot a good "feel" for the airplane during the landing. I still try to slip it at least once during a VFR landing. Be careful not to execute a skid instead.

Staged Instrument Approach

It's not really called that, but I can't think of any other term. In the staged instrument approach, "by the numbers" appears again. This time, the numbers are used to establish the instrument approach. This is different in that (except for CAT II and III) the purpose is to lead to a stabilized visual landing. Most precision approachs go visual at 260 ft. AGL or more. We learn that certain power settings will give certain rates of descent, and these are applied at different stages of an instrument approach. Power is generally constant, and rate of descent is controlled by pitch. This works because the speeds are significantly above stall.

The reason "by the numbers" in an instrument approach works so well is that it really is not a landing at all. It's a stage of flight which leads to a landing.

The go-around or balked landing should be part of every landing. If things go pear shaped, the pilot should be ready to execute a go-around.

The mistake pilots make is not thinking ahead on this. There are many times in which a go-around is not possible or even fatal. But all that means is the pilot is ready for the go-around early enough in the flight.

In summer '98 I saw two situations:

1. A landing I video taped at Whitbey Island, WA. There on a turbulent day, we dropped below the trees. I looked up after the pilot said "oh, shit!" At that time we were "too hot" and ended up in a panicked landing within about 600 ft. If the pilot attempted a go-around at that point, we'd have been picking tree branches out of our mouths.
2. A few weeks later, I landed in Shelter Cove, Calif. Shelter Cove is a beautiful airport among California's coastal cliffs. It turned out I was the first landing after a Piper attempted a go-around. They didn't get off soon enough, hit a shack, a fence and went down between the seacliffs. Three fatal. (NTSB report)

In both instances there was a time for a go-around decision. In the Whitbey Island landing, if the pilot realized that he was "too hot", he could easily have gone around and tried again. I'm not sure what happened to the Piper at Shelter Cove, but it seems that if the decision was made earlier on, they would have not been in trouble at the end of the runway.

In final approach, you should be pretty much preparing for the go-around. That means that as much as practical should be done early on. Cowl flaps opened, carb heat off, auxillary engine controls at an acceptable takeoff setting. (At this point carb heat is no longer as necessary as it would have been earlier in the descent.)

Learn the airplane.

Students, and even those getting advanced checkouts, often perform basic manouvers "by the numbers." That only gives a limited perspective of the characteristics of the airplane.

After learning the manouver, go back with plenty of altitude and really explore how the plane stalls. Determine for yourself where the stall speed is and what the recovery is. You should be able to really get a feel for the airplane. (Be careful not to unintentionally induce a spin)